Literature Review
Introduction
A literature search found the following papers relating to throwing form, accuracy and/or weight training. No researchers studied football throwing.
Throwing Technique
A study done by G.S. Fleisig, S.W. Barrentine, N. Zheng, R.F. Escamilla and J.R. Andrews, studied the effect of proper throwing technique in pitchers of all ages. They found that by learning proper form at a young age, a pitcher would be able to reduce the risk of injuries because all the same motions would occur and result it the building of muscle. This information contributed to the decision to do a throwing experiment. This study showed the importance of throwing practice and learning good technique.
A study done by M. Hirashima, K. Kudo and, T. Ohtsuki, monitored the movement of joints to decide what the purpose of each joint was in 2 and 3 joint throwing of a small ball (presumably a tennis ball or baseball). It was found that the shoulder and elbow were joints that sped up the ball, where as, the wrist controlled the finger grip which allowed the release of the ball and controlled accuracy. This contributed to the hypothesis that stronger muscles and practice improve accuracy.
In a study done by R.E. Mosher and R.W. Shutz proper form was evaluated by skilled observers. They evaluated foot placement, trunk rotation, and arm action. Accuracy was not involved and the ball of choice was not a football.
Effect of Strength Training
The effect of strength training was tested on a group of kids with cerebral palsy. It was done by K.J. Dodd, N.F. Taylor, and D.L. Damiano. They found that training can increase strength and improve motor behavior without negative effects. This study showed the benefits of strength training in improving motor behaviour which may be related to throwing form and accuracy.
A study, done by D.E. Brose and D.L. Hanson, compared different training techniques on throwing velocity and accuracy. The first method was weighted baseballs; the second was a weight training program and the third was a pulley system that resisted the pitchers arm while throwing. Of the three neither was better than the other. The velocity did increase but no change occurred in accuracy. This study suggests that football throwing accuracy would not be affected by weight training.
Another study, done by W.F. Straub, also looked at training vs. velocity and accuracy of a baseball. He tested the effect of a warm up with over, under and normal weighted baseballs and its effect on velocity and accuracy in a long and short term test. The weighted baseballs had no effect on velocity or accuracy in both the long and short term trials. This study also suggests that weight training would not affect football accuracy
J. T. Viitasalo, P. Rahkila, L. Osterback, and M. Alen conducted a study to look at the effects of calendar and skeletal age, anthropometric dimensions, training history and their interactions on vertical jumping height and horizontal overhead throwing velocity. The weight training had no effect of vertical jump height but did increase throwing velocity. It was found that anthropometric dimensions, then calendar age were the biggest factors on vertical jump. The study shows that weight training affects velocity but not accuracy.
Similarly, J. Cronin, P. J. McNair and R. N. Marshall did a study to test the result of resistance training and sport specific motion on netball players’ velocity of their chest pass. Both training methods increased velocity but very little difference occurred between the two. Accuracy was not studied and a football was not used.
A third study, by C. Derenne, K. W. Ho and, J. C. Murphy, reviewed three types of strength training and its effect of the throwing velocity of a baseball. It looked at the effect of general training (overall strength), special training (use of pulley systems, stretch cord, etc.), and specific training (heavy or light weighted baseballs). All three studies involved weight training and throwing velocity. Since velocity is not as important as accuracy in football, accuracy was examined instead of velocity.
Methods
R. M. Malina tried to determine a more reliable method of scoring accuracy. He compared concentric circles to 2 vertical and horizontal accuracy scores. The concentric circles method was the most reliable way of scoring accuracy. Concentric circles target was used as well as vertical and horizontal accuracy scores.
J. Shick tested the effect of accuracy on the colour of the target. No significant differences were found in the colour of the target. Different colours did not effect accuracy and multi-coloured targets were not involved with the test so the red on white target used is not a factor throwing accuracy.
R. J. Scannell tested to see if practicing on a smaller or larger target would increase the accuracy of the throwing darts and softballs. No significant difference was found. Therefore, those who practice throwing will not need a target to help improve. No target was used for football throwing practice.
The following studies relate to throwing form and sometimes accuracy but do not involve football.
A study done by S. A. Butterfield and E.M. Loovis looked at the effect of age, sex, balance, and sport participation on development of throwing. He found that boys did throw better than girls in all grade levels. Only high school aged males were studied, gender and age were not factors.
D. Southhard tried to determine if weighting different parts of the arm or release velocity would affect the level of throwing form achieved. It was found that it did affect throwing form.
J. B. Moore and T. G. Reeve tried to determine the effect of instruction on throwing distance and accuracy of kindergarten children. There was a difference in sex but instruction did not have an effect. Accuracy was the main focus. Kindergarten children would not be able to even hold a football and would not be able to train with weights so the age group does not fit the criteria. High school aged subjects are better suited for football throwing and weight lifting.
A study that determined the effect of instruction on velocity and accuracy was done by R. van den Tillar and G. Ettema. They found that velocity decreased when accuracy was stressed but accuracy also did not increase. The subjects were very skilled hand ball players, therefore it was hard to improve accuracy by decreasing velocity. The study suggests that lower throwing velocity will not improve accuracy and may not be a factor in football throwing.
In conclusion it seems that the effect of weight training and accuracy has been studied but no correlation was found. Many researches studied throwing form. No literature was found that examined football throwing, thus making this study unique.
Also the concentric circles method is popular in many accuracy studies. An x-y gird was placed on top of the concentric circles to aid horizontal and vertical measurement. The target used in this study is similar to what was used by other researchers.